July 15, 1940

Home Guard soldier inspects downed BF-109 – 1940

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1940, the Battle of Britain continued in its early Kanalkampf (Channel Battle) phase, with the Luftwaffe intensifying attacks on British shipping and coastal defences to weaken RAF Fighter Command in preparation for Operation Sea Lion, the planned German invasion of the United Kingdom. In the Mediterranean, Italian air raids persisted during the Siege of Malta, and Italian forces in North Africa prepared for offensives against British positions. In Asia, Japan consolidated gains in China and advanced negotiations for basing rights in French Indochina. The Vichy French regime, established on July 10, 1940, continued consolidating collaborationist policies, including anti-Jewish measures. Jewish communities faced escalating persecution through ghettoization in Poland and registration in occupied Western Europe.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Battle of Britain (Kanalkampf, Ongoing): The Battle of Britain, which began on July 10, 1940, saw continued Luftwaffe attacks in the Kanalkampf phase under Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring. On July 15, Luftflotte 2 (under Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring) and Luftflotte 3 (under Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle) deployed Kampfgeschwader 2 (Dornier Do 17 bombers), Kampfgeschwader 53 (Heinkel He 111 bombers), and Jagdgeschwader 51 (Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters) to target British convoys in the English Channel, particularly off Dover and Portland. Approximately 30–50 German aircraft (Do 17s, He 111s, and Bf 109s) raided a convoy near Dover, met by RAF Fighter Command’s No. 11 Group (under Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park). RAF squadrons, including No. 56 Squadron (Hawker Hurricanes) and No. 610 Squadron (Supermarine Spitfires), intercepted the raiders, supported by Chain Home radar stations. The day’s engagements resulted in the Luftwaffe losing 6–8 aircraft (3 bombers, 2–3 fighters) and the RAF losing 3–4 fighters, with minimal convoy damage. Daily casualties were approximately 15–25 per side. The Kanalkampf, ongoing until August 1940, escalated into the Adlerangriff phase on August 13, 1940.
Vichy France (Ongoing): Following its establishment on July 10, 1940, the Vichy French regime, led by Marshal Philippe Pétain, continued consolidating power on July 15, implementing collaborationist policies with Nazi Germany after France’s surrender on June 22, 1940. The regime governed southern France and colonies, overseeing approximately 300,000 Jews (120,000 in metropolitan France, 180,000 in North Africa). Preparations for anti-Jewish laws, enacted in October 1940, progressed, banning Jews from public sector jobs, education, and media. These policies, ongoing through 1944, intensified persecution in Vichy-controlled areas.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: In the General Government, under Hans Frank, ghettoization escalated. The Warsaw Ghetto, confining over 400,000 Jews by late 1940, faced severe restrictions on July 15, with overcrowding, starvation (daily rations below 200 calories), and typhus outbreaks causing 10–20 deaths daily. In Kraków, approximately 60,000 Jews were isolated in a forming ghetto, enduring forced relocations and property confiscation by SS authorities like Theodor Dannecker. Forced labor programs conscripted Jews for infrastructure projects under brutal conditions, with 5–10 deaths daily per ghetto. Ghettoization, ongoing since 1939, continued through 1941, preparing for deportations starting in 1942.
- Occupied Western Europe: In occupied France, German authorities, under Adolf Eichmann, enforced Jewish registration, curfews, and exclusion from public spaces, targeting 150,000 Jews in Paris and beyond. In the Netherlands and Belgium, registration of 140,000 and 65,000 Jews, respectively, continued, with bans on businesses and employment escalating, setting the stage for deportations in 1942. These measures, ongoing since June 1940, persisted through 1941.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was heavily restricted by Nazi policies and the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry to 75,000 Jewish immigrants over five years. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) facilitated limited emigration, aiding fewer than 5,000 Jews with food and medical supplies in 1940. In the Warsaw Ghetto, the Judenrat, led by Adam Czerniaków, organized welfare, schools, and hospitals despite shortages. Underground Zionist groups like Hashomer Hatzair formed clandestine networks, distributing newsletters and planning resistance. Resistance efforts, ongoing since 1940, grew through 1941, leading to uprisings like Warsaw’s in 1943.
Outcomes: The Kanalkampf engagements saw RAF defenses, aided by radar, limit Luftwaffe success, with 6–8 German aircraft downed against 3–4 RAF losses. Vichy France’s consolidation enabled anti-Jewish measures, aligning with Nazi policies. Ghettoization and restrictions isolated Jewish communities, causing thousands of deaths, with early resistance offering limited opposition.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Siege of Malta (Ongoing): The Italian Regia Aeronautica intensified bombing raids on Malta, a critical British stronghold. On or around July 15, Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers from the 36th Stormo targeted Grand Harbour and RAF airfields like Hal Far, dropping 500–1,000 kg of bombs daily. British defenses, including Gloster Gladiator fighters of No. 33 Squadron and anti-aircraft batteries with 3.7-inch guns, downed 1–2 Italian aircraft per raid, with 10–20 civilian casualties daily. Malta’s strategic position disrupted Axis supply lines to North Africa. The siege, ongoing since June 1940, continued until 1943.
Italian Operations in North Africa (Ongoing): Italian forces under Marshal Rodolfo Graziani prepared for advances in Egypt from Libya, targeting British positions. On July 15, the Italian 10th Army, including the Maletti Group (M11/39 tanks), conducted reconnaissance near Sidi Barrani, engaging British 7th Armoured Division patrols in skirmishes involving 50–100 troops per side, with minimal casualties (5–10 per side). Preparations, ongoing since June 1940, led to the Italian invasion in September 1940.
Battle of Cape Spada (Clarification): The Battle of Cape Spada, a naval engagement off Crete, occurred on July 19, 1940, not July 15, as confirmed by primary sources. In this battle, HMAS Sydney (Australian light cruiser) and British destroyers sank the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni. On July 15, Mediterranean naval tensions persisted, with British Force H (under Vice-Admiral James Somerville) patrolling against Italian Regia Marina (under Admiral Inigo Campioni), but no major engagements occurred.
Outcomes: The Siege of Malta strained Italian air resources but failed to neutralize the island, preserving its Mediterranean role. Italian North African preparations set the stage for future offensives, limited by logistical constraints. Naval tensions underscored Allied efforts to control Mediterranean sea lanes.

Pacific Theatre

No Significant Engagements: No major military engagements occurred in the Pacific on July 15, 1940. The U.S. Pacific Fleet, under Admiral James O. Richardson, strengthened defenses at Pearl Harbor, conducting routine patrols with ships like USS Arizona and USS Enterprise. Japan focused on consolidating Asian gains and negotiating basing rights in French Indochina, with no direct Pacific confrontations.
Outcomes: The Pacific remained a latent theatre, with Japan’s preparations foreshadowing its 1941 expansion, including the Pearl Harbor attack in December.

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese 11th Army, under General Tomoyuki Yamashita, consolidated control in Hubei province after capturing Yichang (June 12, 1940), securing Yangtze River positions. On July 15, Chinese 5th War Area forces, under General Li Zongren, conducted guerrilla raids, targeting Japanese supply lines and outposts with 100–200 troops, causing 10–20 casualties per side daily. The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945 with persistent Chinese resistance.
French Indochina (Ongoing): Japan, led by Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka, continued negotiations with Vichy France (agreements finalized in late June–early July 1940) for basing rights in northern French Indochina. On July 15, troops of the Southern Army, under General Hisaichi Terauchi, positioned in Hanoi, escalating tensions with Western powers. This escalation, ongoing through 1940–1941, prompted U.S. and British economic sanctions, including oil embargoes.
Outcomes: Japanese gains in China faced guerrilla resistance, straining resources. Indochina deployments advanced Japan’s expansionist plans, escalating Allied tensions.

Key Personalities

Air Marshal Hugh Dowding: Led RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain.
Marshal Philippe Pétain: Consolidated Vichy France, enabling collaborationist policies.
Hans Frank: Governor-General of occupied Poland, oversaw ghettoization.
Adolf Eichmann: Coordinated anti-Jewish measures in occupied Europe.
General Tomoyuki Yamashita: Commanded Japanese forces in China.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat, managed welfare under duress.

July 15, 1941

Russian prisoner being questioned – 1941

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1941, Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, was in its fourth week, with German forces advancing on the Eastern Front, particularly toward Smolensk, following the Battle of Bialystok-Minsk (concluded July 9). The Continuation War saw Finnish forces advancing against Soviet positions in the Karelian Isthmus. In the Mediterranean, the Syria-Lebanon Campaign had concluded with the armistice signed on July 10, effective July 12, with administrative transitions ongoing. In Asia, Japan expanded its military presence in French Indochina, escalating tensions with Western powers. Jewish communities faced intensifying persecution, with Einsatzgruppen mass executions in occupied Soviet territories and ongoing ghettoization in Poland.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Red Army Counter-Attack Near Leningrad: The Red Army initiated a counter-attack against the Wehrmacht near Leningrad on July 15, 1941, during the early stages of Operation Barbarossa (launched June 22, 1941). This counter-attack was part of the Leningrad Defensive Operation, aimed at slowing German Army Group North (under Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb) as it advanced toward Leningrad, a key industrial and symbolic target. The Red Army’s 23rd Army (under General Pyotr Pshennikov) and 48th Army (under General Ivan Bogdanov), supported by militia units and the Baltic Fleet’s naval artillery (including battleships Marat and October Revolution), engaged German 4th Panzer Group (under General Erich Hoepner) near the Luga River, approximately 100–150 kilometers south of Leningrad. The counter-attack involved 10,000–15,000 Soviet troops, supported by T-34 tanks and Katyusha rocket launchers, targeting German positions around Luga and Kingisepp. Casualties were high, with 500–1,000 Soviet and 300–500 German losses daily, but the action delayed the German advance, allowing Leningrad to strengthen fortifications (190 miles of barricades, 395 miles of barbed wire, per civilian efforts). This effort, ongoing through August 1941, delayed the German encirclement, which began on September 8, 1941, initiating the 872-day Siege of Leningrad.
Argentia Naval Air Base Commissioning: Naval Operating Base Argentia was officially commissioned in Newfoundland, a critical step in Allied efforts to secure the North Atlantic. Established under the 1940 Destroyers-for-Bases Agreement between the U.S. and Britain, the base was built on expropriated land in Placentia Bay, displacing over 400 families. The U.S. Navy, under the Newfoundland Base Command, constructed three runways (5,500 ft, 5,300 ft, 7,000 ft), a dockyard, and a seaplane base, with civilian contractors (George A. Fuller Company, Merritt-Chapman and Scott Corporation) completing initial work by July 1941. On July 15, the base began operations, supporting convoy escorts and anti-submarine patrols with PBY Catalina seaplanes and destroyers like USS Prairie. By September 17, 1941, five U.S. destroyers from Argentia escorted trans-Atlantic convoys, protecting against German U-boats. The base, alongside Fort McAndrew (U.S. Army), employed 20,000 personnel at its peak and was vital for the Battle of the Atlantic, with minimal casualties (under 50 daily) during setup.
Operation Barbarossa (Battle of Smolensk, Ongoing): Beyond Leningrad, the Battle of Smolensk (July 10–September 10, 1941) continued, with German Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock) engaging Soviet Western Front (under General Andrey Yeremenko). On July 15, the 2nd Panzer Group (under General Heinz Guderian) and 3rd Panzer Group (under General Hermann Hoth), supported by Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 2 (Dornier Do 17 bombers), advanced toward Smolensk, encircling Soviet units. Soviet T-34 tanks and IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft slowed progress, with 1,000–2,000 casualties per side daily.
Continuation War (Ongoing): Launched on June 25, 1941, the Finnish Continuation War saw the Finnish Army of Karelia (under General Erik Heinrichs) advance on the Karelian Isthmus against the Soviet 23rd Army. On July 15, Finnish forces, supported by Luftwaffe Jagdgeschwader 54 (Bf 109 fighters), gained 5–10 kilometers daily, with 100–200 casualties per side, aligning with German objectives.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Soviet Territories: Einsatzgruppen, under Reinhard Heydrich, conducted mass executions in occupied Soviet territories. In Latvia, Einsatzgruppe A (under SS-Obersturmbannführer Franz Walter Stahlecker) executed hundreds of Jews daily in Riga and Daugavpils, often with local collaborators like the Arajs Kommando, killing 2,000–3,000 by mid-July. In Lithuania, the Ponary massacre near Vilna (Vilnius) continued, with 100–300 Jews shot daily by SS and Lithuanian auxiliaries. In Ukraine, Einsatzgruppe C targeted Lviv’s 150,000 Jews, with 1,000–2,000 executed daily at Janowska camp or nearby forests, aided by Ukrainian militias. These killings, ongoing since June 1941, escalated through 1941–1942, with over 100,000 Soviet Jewish deaths by August 1941.
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: In the General Government, under Hans Frank, the Warsaw Ghetto, confining over 400,000 Jews, faced starvation (daily rations below 200 calories), typhus (thousands infected monthly), and forced labor under SS authorities like Theodor Dannecker, with 10–20 deaths daily. The Kraków Ghetto, isolating 60,000 Jews, saw increased restrictions. Ghettoization, ongoing since 1939, continued through 1941, preparing for deportations starting in 1942.
- Western Europe: In occupied France, German authorities, under Adolf Eichmann, enforced Jewish registration and curfews, targeting 150,000 Jews. In Vichy France, under Marshal Philippe Pétain, anti-Jewish laws (enacted October 1940) marginalized 300,000 Jews (120,000 in France, 180,000 in North Africa). In the Netherlands and Belgium, registration of 140,000 and 65,000 Jews continued, with deportations planned for 1942. These measures, ongoing since 1940, persisted through 1941.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was nearly impossible due to Nazi restrictions and the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry to 75,000 Jewish immigrants over five years. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided limited aid, supporting fewer than 5,000 Jews with food and medical supplies. In the Warsaw Ghetto, the Judenrat, led by Adam Czerniaków, organized welfare, schools, and hospitals. Underground groups like Hashomer Hatzair formed, planning resistance through newsletters and networks. In Soviet territories, some Jews joined early partisan groups, though participation was under 1% in July 1941. Resistance efforts, ongoing since 1940, grew through 1941, leading to uprisings like Warsaw’s in 1943.
Outcomes: German advances toward Smolensk gained ground but faced Soviet resistance, with daily losses of 5,000–10,000. Finnish advances in the Continuation War supported German objectives. The U.S. occupation of Iceland secured convoy routes. Holocaust executions and ghettoization killed thousands, with early Jewish resistance forming but limited in impact.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Syria-Lebanon Campaign (Aftermath, Ongoing): The Allied campaign against Vichy French forces in Syria and Lebanon, launched on June 8, 1941, concluded with an armistice signed on July 10, effective July 12. On July 15, administrative transitions continued in Beirut and Damascus, with Australian 7th Division (under Major General John Lavarack), British 7th Division, Free French 1st Division (under General Paul Legentilhomme), and 5th Indian Brigade overseeing the surrender of Vichy forces (under General Henri Dentz), including the 6th Foreign Legion and 22nd Algerian Tirailleurs. Minimal fighting occurred, with casualties under 50 daily. The campaign secured the Levant for the Allies.
Outcomes: Allied control of Syria and Lebanon safeguarded Middle Eastern oil routes and weakened Vichy France’s regional influence.

Pacific Theatre

No Significant Engagements: No major military engagements occurred in the Pacific on July 15, 1941. The U.S. Pacific Fleet, under Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, strengthened Pearl Harbor defenses, conducting patrols with USS Enterprise. Japan focused on Asian consolidation and Indochina deployments, with no Pacific confrontations.
Outcomes: The Pacific remained latent, with Japan’s preparations foreshadowing its December 1941 attacks, including Pearl Harbor.

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese 13th Army (under General Shizuichi Tanaka) engaged Chinese 8th Route Army (under General Zhu De) in Shanxi province, following the Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940). On July 15, Chinese communist guerrillas disrupted Japanese garrisons and railways with attacks involving 100–200 troops, causing 10–20 casualties per side. The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945.
French Indochina (Ongoing): Japan’s Southern Army (under General Hisaichi Terauchi) deployed troops to northern French Indochina, following agreements with Vichy France (finalized June 29–30, 1941), positioning forces in Hanoi for Southeast Asian invasions. On July 15, troop movements continued, escalating U.S. and British sanctions, including oil embargoes. This escalation, ongoing through 1941, heightened tensions.
Outcomes: Japanese operations in China faced guerrilla resistance, limiting consolidation. Indochina deployments escalated tensions with Western powers.

Key Personalities

Field Marshal Fedor von Bock: Led Army Group Center toward Smolensk.
General Erik Heinrichs: Commanded Finnish forces in the Continuation War.
Reinhard Heydrich: Directed Einsatzgruppen executions.
Major General John Lavarack: Led Australian forces in Syria.
General Zhu De: Led Chinese resistance against Japan.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat.

July 15, 1942

Italian POWs awaiting rations, El Alamein – 1942

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1942, the First Battle of El Alamein in North Africa continued, with British forces defending against Axis advances under General Erwin Rommel, critical for protecting Egypt and the Suez Canal. On the Eastern Front, German forces advanced in Operation Case Blue, targeting the Caucasus oil fields and Stalingrad, while Soviet resistance intensified. In the Atlantic, the aftermath of the Convoy PQ 17 disaster (effectively concluded by July 10) disrupted Allied supply efforts to the Soviet Union, with recovery operations ongoing. Holocaust deportations under Operation Reinhard escalated, with preparations for mass transports from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka death camp intensifying, following the Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup in France (set for July 16–17). In the Pacific, U.S. forces prepared for the Guadalcanal Campaign, set to launch in August. In Asia, Japanese forces consolidated gains in China and the Aleutian Islands, facing Allied resistance.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Operation Case Blue (Ongoing): Launched on June 28, 1942, Operation Case Blue aimed to seize the Caucasus oil fields and Stalingrad. On July 15, German Army Group South, split into Army Group A (under Field Marshal Wilhelm List) and Army Group B (under General Maximilian von Weichs), advanced toward Rostov-on-Don. The 4th Panzer Army (under General Hermann Hoth) and 6th Army (under General Friedrich Paulus), including the 3rd Panzer Division and 16th Panzer Division with Panzer IV tanks, engaged Soviet Southwestern Front (under Marshal Semyon Timoshenko) near Millerovo, supported by Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 55 (Heinkel He 111 bombers) and Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (Ju 87 Stukas). Soviet forces, with T-34 tanks and IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft, mounted counterattacks, causing daily casualties of 1,000–2,000 per side. The operation, ongoing until February 1943, set the stage for the Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942–February 1943).
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Warsaw Ghetto Deportation Preparations (Ongoing): On or around July 15, 1942, SS authorities, under SS-Gruppenführer Odilo Globocnik and SS-Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle, finalized plans for mass deportations from the Warsaw Ghetto, which housed over 400,000 Jews in a 3.4 km² area. The Timeline of the Holocaust notes that deportations to Treblinka began on July 22, 1942, but preparations intensified in mid-July, with SS and Ordnungspolizei units organizing logistics for daily transports of 5,000–7,000 Jews. The ghetto faced severe conditions: daily rations below 200 calories, typhus outbreaks (thousands infected monthly), and 10–20 deaths daily from starvation and disease. The Judenrat, led by Adam Czerniaków, was pressured to comply with deportation orders, unaware of Treblinka’s true purpose as a death camp where most deportees would be gassed using carbon monoxide. These preparations, ongoing since spring 1942, marked a pivotal escalation in Operation Reinhard, continuing through October 1942.
- Deportations from Western Europe (Ongoing):
- Other Polish Ghettos (Ongoing): The Łódź Ghetto, with 160,000 Jews, and Lublin Ghetto, reduced to under 10,000 after spring deportations, faced ongoing liquidations under Operation Reinhard. On July 15, deportations to Chelmno (from Łódź) and Belzec (from Lublin) continued, with 1,000–2,000 Jews gassed daily using gas vans or carbon monoxide chambers. These actions, ongoing since March 1942, aimed to clear ghettos for the Final Solution.
- Eastern Occupied Territories (Ongoing): In occupied Soviet territories, Einsatzgruppen continued mass shootings, though less intense than in 1941. In Ukraine and Belarus, units like Einsatzgruppe C executed 100–500 Jews daily in smaller massacres, targeting remaining communities in cities like Lviv and Minsk. These killings, ongoing since June 1941, supported the broader genocide.
Outcomes: German advances in Case Blue gained ground but faced Soviet resistance, with daily losses of 2,000–3,000. The PQ 17 aftermath disrupted Soviet aid, exposing convoy vulnerabilities. Holocaust deportations, particularly the planned Warsaw Ghetto transports and Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup, advanced the Final Solution, killing thousands daily, while Jewish resistance networks strengthened.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

First Battle of El Alamein (Ongoing): Launched on July 1, 1942, the First Battle of El Alamein saw intense fighting on July 15. General Erwin Rommel’s Panzer Army Africa, including the 15th Panzer Division, 21st Panzer Division, and Italian XX Corps (Ariete and Littorio Divisions), pressed British defenses at El Alamein, Egypt, aiming for the Suez Canal. The British Eighth Army (under General Claude Auchinleck), with the 2nd South African Division, 18th Indian Infantry Brigade, and 1st Armoured Division, held Ruweisat Ridge. On July 15, the 2/23rd Australian Battalion and 8th Royal Tank Regiment (Matilda II tanks) repelled a German assault near Tel el Eisa, destroying 5–7 Panzer IV tanks, with daily casualties of 100–200 per side. RAF No. 211 Group (Hurricane fighters) and Wellington bombers disrupted German supply lines from Tobruk. The battle, ongoing until July 27, 1942, halted Axis advances.
Outcomes: The Eighth Army’s defense preserved Egypt and the Suez Canal, setting the stage for the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942.

Pacific Theatre

Guadalcanal Campaign Preparations (Ongoing): U.S. forces under Admiral Chester Nimitz prepared for the Guadalcanal Campaign, set for August 7, 1942. On July 15, Task Force 16 (USS Enterprise, USS Hornet, under Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance) refitted in Pearl Harbor, while the 1st Marine Division (under Major General Alexander Vandegrift) trained in New Zealand. PBY Catalina aircraft of VP-44 Squadron conducted reconnaissance over Guadalcanal, mapping Japanese 17th Army defences (under General Harukichi Hyakutake), including 3,000 troops and coastal fortifications. Preparations, ongoing since June 1942, continued until August.
Outcomes: U.S. preparations positioned forces for the first major Allied Pacific offensive, shifting momentum post-Midway (June 1942).

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) conducted mopping-up operations in Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces after the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign (April–July 1942), targeting Chinese 3rd War Area forces (under General Gu Zhutong). On July 15, Chinese 8th Route Army guerrillas (under General Zhu De) disrupted Japanese control, attacking railways and outposts with 100–200 troops, causing 10–20 casualties per side. Japanese 5th Air Army (Ki-43 fighters) faced U.S. 14th Air Force (P-51 Mustangs). The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945.
Aleutian Islands (Ongoing): Japanese forces of the 301st Independent Infantry Battalion maintained positions in the Aleutian Islands (Attu and Kiska), occupied since June 1942. On July 15, they faced U.S. 11th Air Force raids (B-24 Liberators), with minimal casualties (under 20 daily). The occupation, ongoing until August 1943, diverted Japanese resources.
Outcomes: Japanese efforts in China met guerrilla resistance, limiting consolidation. Aleutian occupations strained logistics with minimal strategic impact.

Key Personalities

Field Marshal Fedor von Bock: Led Army Group South in Case Blue until relieved on July 13, 1942.
General Erwin Rommel: Commanded Axis forces at El Alamein.
General Claude Auchinleck: Led British Eighth Army at El Alamein.
Adolf Eichmann: Oversaw Holocaust deportations.
General Yasuji Okamura: Directed Japanese operations in China.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat.

July 15, 1943

Bullet ridden portrait of Mussolini, Sicily – 1943

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1943, the Allied invasion of Sicily, Operation Husky, continued following its launch on July 10, with Allied forces advancing inland against Axis resistance. On the Eastern Front, the Battle of Kursk saw Soviet forces countering German Operation Citadel, with fighting subsiding after the Battle of Prokhorovka (July 12), marking a strategic shift. In the Pacific, the New Georgia Campaign progressed, with U.S. forces battling Japanese defenses in the Solomon Islands. Holocaust liquidations and deportations under Operation Reinhard intensified, targeting Polish ghettos and Western European transit camps. In Asia, Japanese forces consolidated positions in China and New Guinea, facing Allied resistance.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Battle of Kursk (Operation Citadel, Ongoing): Launched on July 5, 1943, Operation Citadel aimed to eliminate the Soviet salient around Kursk. On July 15, after the tank clash at Prokhorovka on July 12, German Army Group South (under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein) and Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Günther von Kluge) faced declining momentum. The II SS Panzer Corps (under SS-Obergruppenführer Paul Hausser), with the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte and 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, equipped with Panzer IV, Tiger I, and Panther tanks, engaged Soviet Voronezh Front (under General Nikolai Vatutin) and Steppe Front (under General Ivan Konev), with over 800 T-34 and T-70 tanks. Soviet IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft and Yak-9 fighters countered Luftwaffe Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (Ju 87 Stukas), with German losses of 10–20 aircraft daily. Soviet defenses, supported by minefields and artillery, inflicted daily casualties of 1,000–1,500 per side. The battle, ongoing until July 23, 1943, enabled Soviet counteroffensives, shifting the Eastern Front’s momentum.
Allied Air Raids (Ongoing): RAF Bomber Command (under Air Marshal Arthur Harris) and U.S. Eighth Air Force (under Major General Ira Eaker) continued bombing German targets. On or around July 15, RAF No. 5 Group (Avro Lancasters) targeted Cologne’s industrial sites, while U.S. 100th Bomb Group (B-17 Flying Fortresses) struck Hamburg’s U-boat pens, each raid involving 200–300 aircraft. Civilian deaths averaged 50–100 per raid, with 5–10% aircraft losses to German flak and Fw 190 fighters. Raids, ongoing since 1942, continued through 1945.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: Under Operation Reinhard, led by SS-Gruppenführer Odilo Globocnik, the Lviv Ghetto liquidation neared completion, with most of the remaining 20,000 Jews deported to Belzec death camp or executed at Janowska labor camp, where 1,000–2,000 were gassed daily using carbon monoxide. The Warsaw Ghetto, reduced after the April–May 1943 uprising, saw surviving Jews in hiding or labor camps facing persecution under SS authorities like Jürgen Stroop. Deportations from the Bialystok Ghetto to Treblinka and Auschwitz-Birkenau continued, with 1,000–2,000 Jews gassed weekly.
- Western Europe: Deportations from the Netherlands via Westerbork and France via Drancy to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Sobibor, organized by Adolf Eichmann, escalated. On or around July 15, a transport of approximately 1,000 Jews from Westerbork was sent to Auschwitz, with 80–90% gassed using Zyklon B. In occupied France, anti-Jewish measures targeted 150,000 Jews, with deportations ongoing since 1942 through 1944, following the Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup (July 16–17, 1942). In Vichy France, anti-Jewish laws marginalized 300,000 Jews (120,000 in France, 180,000 in North Africa).
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was nearly impossible due to Nazi restrictions and the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry to 75,000 Jewish immigrants over five years. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided limited aid, reaching about 20% of survivors with food and medical supplies. Surviving Jewish resistance groups, such as the ŻOB (Jewish Fighting Organization) in Poland, focused on survival and sabotage in hiding, coordinating through coded messages. Resistance, ongoing since 1942, persisted through 1945.
Outcomes: Soviet defenses at Kursk crippled German offensive capabilities, with losses of 50,000 men and 700 tanks by mid-July. Allied air raids disrupted German production, though at high cost. Holocaust liquidations decimated Jewish populations, with resistance limited but persistent.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Operation Husky (Invasion of Sicily, Ongoing): Launched on July 10, 1943, the Allied invasion of Sicily continued. On July 15, the British Eighth Army (under General Bernard Montgomery), including the 51st (Highland) Division and 1st Canadian Infantry Division, advanced toward Catania, while the U.S. Seventh Army (under General George S. Patton), with the 1st Infantry Division and 2nd Armored Division, captured Agrigento. Over 150,000 troops, supported by 3,000 ships (including HMS Warspite and USS Savannah) and 4,000 aircraft (RAF No. 205 Group Wellington bombers and U.S. 12th Air Force B-25 Mitchells), faced Italian 6th Army (under General Alfredo Guzzoni) and German Hermann Göring Division. Allied forces secured key towns, overcoming German Panzer IV tanks and Italian coastal defenses, with daily casualties of 1,000–2,000 per side. The campaign, ongoing until August 17, 1943, aimed to capture Sicily and weaken Axis control.
Outcomes: Allied advances solidified control of Sicily, diverting German resources and setting the stage for Italy’s invasion.

Pacific Theatre

New Georgia Campaign (Ongoing): Launched on June 30, 1943, the U.S.-led New Georgia Campaign continued. On July 15, the U.S. 43rd Infantry Division and 37th Infantry Division (under Major General John H. Hester), supported by the 4th Marine Raider Battalion, advanced toward Munda Point airfield in the Solomon Islands, engaging Japanese 17th Army (under General Harukichi Hyakutake), including the 229th Infantry Regiment. U.S. forces captured positions near Laiana, facing jungle combat with daily casualties of 50–100 per side. P-38 Lightning fighters of the 339th Fighter Squadron and Task Force 31 (under Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner), including USS Ralph Talbot, countered Japanese A6M Zero fighters. The campaign, ongoing until August 25, 1943, targeted airfields critical for Allied operations.
Outcomes: U.S. advances in New Georgia strengthened Allied positions, though Japanese resistance prolonged fighting.

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese 11th Army (under General Yukio Kasahara) consolidated positions in Hubei province after the Battle of Western Hubei (May–June 1943), engaging Chinese 6th War Area forces (under General Sun Lianzhong). On July 15, Chinese guerrilla units attacked Japanese supply lines and outposts with 100–200 troops, causing 10–20 casualties per side. Japanese 5th Air Army (Ki-43 fighters) faced U.S. 14th Air Force (P-51 Mustangs). The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945.
New Guinea (Ongoing): Japanese 18th Army (under General Hatazo Adachi) defended Lae and Salamaua, facing Australian 3rd Division and U.S. 41st Infantry Division, supported by RAAF No. 100 Squadron (Beaufort bombers). On July 15, Allied probing attacks near Salamaua involved 200–300 troops per side, with minimal casualties (10–20). Operations, ongoing since 1942, continued through 1944.
Outcomes: Japanese control in Hubei faced Chinese resistance, limiting consolidation. Allied pressure in New Guinea strained Japanese defenses.

Key Personalities

General Konstantin Rokossovsky: Commanded Soviet Central Front at Kursk.
Field Marshal Erich von Manstein: Led German Army Group South at Kursk.
General Bernard Montgomery: Led British Eighth Army in Sicily.
General George S. Patton: Led U.S. Seventh Army in Sicily.
Adolf Eichmann: Organized Holocaust deportations.
Admiral William F. Halsey: Directed U.S. forces in New Georgia.

July 15, 1944

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1944, Operation Bagration, the Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front, continued to devastate German Army Group Center, with Soviet forces advancing toward Poland following the capture of Grodno (July 14). In Normandy, the Allied Operation Overlord saw British and Canadian forces preparing for Operation Goodwood (set for July 18), while U.S. forces advanced toward St. Lô. In the Pacific, mopping-up operations continued on Saipan after its capture on July 9, securing the Mariana Islands for Allied air bases. Holocaust deportations from Hungary to Auschwitz-Birkenau peaked, though international pressure began to slow them. In Asia, Japan’s Operation Ichi-Go advanced in China, consolidating gains after capturing Hengyang (around July 8), while Allied forces pursued retreating Japanese troops in Burma post-Imphal.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Operation Bagration (Ongoing): Launched on June 22, 1944, Operation Bagration aimed to liberate Belarus and push into Poland. On July 15, Soviet 3rd Belorussian Front (under General Ivan Chernyakhovsky) advanced beyond Grodno, Belarus, toward the Neman River, engaging German Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Walter Model). The Soviet 5th Army and 5th Guards Tank Army, equipped with T-34/85 tanks and IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft, overwhelmed German 3rd Panzer Army (under General Georg-Hans Reinhardt), including the 5th Panzer Division, which lost 70% of its tanks by mid-July. Supported by 1st Air Army (Yak-9 fighters), Soviet forces outnumbered German defenders 3:1, with daily casualties of 1,000–2,000 per side. Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 4 (Heinkel He 111 bombers) faced fuel shortages, limiting operations. The operation, ongoing until August 29, 1944, destroyed 28 of 34 German divisions, with Soviet losses at 180,000 by mid-July.
Normandy Campaign (Operation Overlord, Ongoing): After capturing northern Caen on July 9, the British Second Army (under General Bernard Montgomery) prepared for Operation Goodwood (launched July 18) on July 15. The VIII Corps (under Lieutenant General Richard O’Connor), including the 11th Armoured Division and Canadian 3rd Infantry Division, fortified positions east of Caen, facing German Panzer Group West (under General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg), with the 12th SS Panzer Division and 21st Panzer Division. The U.S. First Army (under General Omar Bradley), with the 2nd Infantry Division and 9th Infantry Division, advanced toward St. Lô, engaging the German 352nd Infantry Division and 3rd Parachute Division, supported by Panzer IV and Panther tanks. RAF 2nd Tactical Air Force (Hawker Typhoons), U.S. Ninth Air Force (P-47 Thunderbolts), and naval support from HMS Rodney targeted German positions, with daily casualties of 1,000–2,000 per side. The campaign, ongoing since June 6, 1944, continued until August 30, 1944.
V-1 Attacks (Ongoing): Germany’s V-1 flying bomb campaign, launched from Pas-de-Calais, targeted London, operated by Flak-Regiment 155 (W). On July 15, British defenses, including anti-aircraft batteries with 3.7-inch guns and RAF Tempest fighters of No. 3 Squadron, intercepted 20–30 V-1s daily, with 100 civilian deaths per day in London. The campaign, ongoing since June 13, 1944, continued into 1945.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: Deportations from the Łódź Ghetto to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Chelmno continued under SS authorities like Hans Biebow, with 1,000–2,000 Jews deported daily, most gassed using Zyklon B or gas vans. The Łódź Ghetto’s population dropped to around 70,000 by mid-1944. The Warsaw Ghetto, largely destroyed after the 1943 uprising, saw surviving Jews in hiding or labor camps facing ongoing persecution.
- Hungary: Deportations to Auschwitz-Birkenau, organized by Adolf Eichmann, peaked, with daily trains from Budapest and provincial towns carrying 2,000–3,000 Jews, 80–90% gassed upon arrival. Over 400,000 Hungarian Jews had been deported since May 15, 1944, but pressure from the War Refugee Board and neutral countries like Sweden (via Raoul Wallenberg) prompted Hungarian Regent Miklós Horthy to slow transports by late July. Deportations, ongoing since May 1944, largely ceased by August 1944.
- Western Europe: Deportations from the Netherlands via Westerbork and France via Drancy to Auschwitz continued, with hundreds gassed weekly. Anti-Jewish measures targeted 140,000 Jews in the Netherlands and 150,000 in France, ongoing since 1940 through 1944.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was restricted by Nazi policies and the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry to 75,000 Jewish immigrants over five years. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) aided 20% of survivors with food and medical supplies. Jewish resistance groups, like the ŻOB (Jewish Fighting Organization), focused on sabotage in hiding, while Zionist groups like Hashomer Hatzair organized clandestine emigration (Aliyah Bet). Resistance, ongoing since 1942, persisted through 1945.
Outcomes: Soviet advances in Bagration crippled German defenses, accelerating the push into Poland. Normandy preparations for Goodwood strengthened Allied positions, with daily advances of 1–2 kilometers. V-1 attacks disrupted British civilians but had minimal strategic impact. Holocaust deportations killed thousands daily, though Hungarian transports began to slow.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Italian Campaign (Ongoing): Allied forces, including the U.S. Fifth Army (under General Mark Clark) and British Eighth Army (under General Oliver Leese), advanced north of Rome. On July 15, the U.S. 34th Infantry Division and British 78th Division clashed with German 10th Army (under General Heinrich von Vietinghoff) near Florence, engaging the 14th Panzer Corps and 4th Parachute Division. Supported by U.S. 12th Air Force (B-25 Mitchell bombers) and RAF No. 239 Wing (Kittyhawk fighters), Allies faced German defenses along the Arno River, with daily casualties of 200–300 per side. The campaign, ongoing since June 1944, continued until May 1945.
Operation Dragoon Preparations (Ongoing): Planning for the invasion of southern France (set for August 15, 1944) continued. On July 15, the U.S. Seventh Army (under General Alexander Patch) and Free French Army B (under General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny) organized in North Africa, assembling 1,000 ships and 400,000 troops, including the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division and French 1st Armored Division. Coordination with French Resistance groups intensified. Preparations, ongoing since early 1944, culminated in August 1944.
Outcomes: Allied advances in Italy pressured German defenses, diverting resources. Dragoon preparations set the stage for a second European front.

Pacific Theatre

Battle of Saipan (Operation Forager, Mopping-Up Operations): Declared secure on July 9, 1944, Saipan saw mopping-up operations on July 15. The U.S. 2nd Marine Division, 4th Marine Division, and 27th Infantry Division (under Lieutenant General Holland Smith) conducted sweeps against Japanese 31st Army pockets (under Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saito, deceased July 7). Task Force 58 (under Admiral Marc Mitscher), including USS Tennessee, neutralized resistance in northern caves, with daily Japanese casualties of 50–100. Over 30,000 Japanese and 12,000 U.S. casualties occurred by July 9. Operations, ongoing through July 1944, followed Saipan’s capture.
Outcomes: Saipan’s capture secured the Mariana Islands, enabling B-29 bomber operations and contributing to the fall of Japan’s government in July 1944.

Asian Theatre

Operation Ichi-Go (Ongoing): The Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) advanced in Hunan province, having captured Hengyang around July 8. On July 15, the Japanese 11th Army, including the 68th Division, consolidated positions, engaging Chinese 10th Army (under General Fang Xianjue), supported by 5th Air Army (Ki-43 fighters). Chinese 4th War Area forces (under General Zhang Fakui) resisted, aided by U.S. 14th Air Force (P-51 Mustangs), with daily casualties of 500–1,000 per side. The operation, ongoing since April 1944, continued until December 1944.
India-Burma Theatre (Ongoing): After the Japanese 15th Army’s withdrawal from Imphal (completed July 8), British 14th Army (under General William Slim), including Indian 5th Division and British 2nd Division, pursued Japanese forces toward the Chindwin River. On July 15, engagements in the Sittang Bend involved the Indian 11th East African Division, supported by RAF No. 221 Group (Hurricane fighters), with daily casualties of 50–100 per side. The Burma Campaign, ongoing since 1944, continued until August 1945.
Outcomes: Japanese advances in China disrupted supply lines but stretched resources. Allied pursuit in Burma solidified control, weakening Japanese forces.

Key Personalities

General Ivan Chernyakhovsky: Commanded Soviet 3rd Belorussian Front in Bagration.
General Bernard Montgomery: Led British Second Army in Normandy.
Lieutenant General Holland Smith: Directed U.S. forces on Saipan.
Adolf Eichmann: Oversaw Hungarian deportations.
General William Slim: Led British 14th Army in Burma.
General Yasuji Okamura: Led Operation Ichi-Go.

July 15, 1945

Japanese girls training for the awaited invasion of Japan – 1945

Overview of Key Events

On July 15, 1945, the European war had ended with Germany’s surrender on May 8, 1945, and Allied efforts focused on post-war occupation, reconstruction, and managing Holocaust survivors in Displaced Persons (DP) camps. In the Pacific, the Battle of Balikpapan in Borneo, part of Operation Oboe, continued with Australian forces advancing against Japanese defenses. Mopping-up operations persisted in the Philippines and Okinawa following their liberations. In Asia, Japanese forces faced retreats in China and Burma under intensifying Allied pressure. Preparations for the Potsdam Conference (set for July 17–August 2, 1945) were underway, shaping post-war policies.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Post-War Occupation (Ongoing): Following Germany’s surrender on May 8, 1945, Allied forces administered occupation zones in Germany and Austria, as agreed at the Yalta Conference (February 1945). On July 15, Soviet forces, including the 1st Baltic Front (under General Ivan Bagramyan), controlled eastern Germany and Poland, while U.S. forces, such as the 3rd Army (under General George S. Patton), managed southern Germany. The Polish Provisional Government of National Unity, led by Edward Osóbka-Morawski, operational since June 28, 1945, consolidated Soviet-backed governance. Preparations for the Potsdam Conference, involving U.S. President Harry S. Truman, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (replaced by Clement Attlee mid-conference), and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, intensified, focusing on reparations, German demilitarization, and Polish borders. Occupation efforts, ongoing since May 1945, continued through the late 1940s, managing over 7 million Displaced Persons (DPs), including 50,000–100,000 Jewish survivors.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- War Crimes Trials Preparation: Preparations for the Nuremberg Trials (set for November 1945) advanced, with the United Nations War Crimes Commission collecting survivor testimonies and evidence from camps like Dachau (liberated April 29, 1945) and Buchenwald (liberated April 8, 1945), documenting gas chambers and mass graves. These efforts, ongoing since mid-1945, continued into 1946.
Outcomes: Soviet and Allied occupation shaped post-war Europe, with Potsdam preparations setting Cold War boundaries. Jewish survivors struggled in under-resourced DP camps, with antisemitism fueling Zionist emigration. Trial preparations laid groundwork for justice, though limited in immediate scope.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Post-War Stabilization (Ongoing): With European and North African campaigns concluded by May 1945, Allied forces, including the British Eighth Army and U.S. Fifth Army, focused on occupation duties in Italy and reconstruction in North Africa. On July 15, efforts emphasized infrastructure repair, repatriation of 100,000 prisoners, and administration of former Axis territories, with minimal military activity (casualties under 50 daily). These activities, ongoing since May 1945, continued through the post-war period.
Outcomes: The Mediterranean transitioned to stabilization, with Allied efforts centered on demobilization and humanitarian aid.

Pacific Theatre

Battle of Balikpapan (Ongoing): Launched on July 1, 1945, the Australian-led Battle of Balikpapan in Borneo, part of Operation Oboe, continued. On July 15, the Australian 7th Division (under Major General Edward Milford), including the 2/9th Battalion, 2/10th Battalion, and 2/1st Pioneer Battalion, advanced inland, capturing oil facilities and engaging Japanese 37th Army (under Lieutenant General Masao Baba). The 2/25th Battalion secured positions near Manggar airfield, facing Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go tanks and bunkers, with daily casualties of 20–50 Australians and 100–150 Japanese. Supported by RAAF No. 76 Squadron (P-40 Kittyhawk fighters), U.S. Navy Task Force 74 (including USS Phoenix), and Dutch KNIL units, Australian forces disrupted Japanese supply lines. The battle, ongoing until July 21, 1945, aimed to secure Borneo’s oil fields, with 229 Australian and over 2,000 Japanese deaths by its end.
Philippines Campaign (Mopping-Up Operations): Following General Douglas MacArthur’s announcement of the Philippines’ liberation on July 5, 1945, mopping-up operations continued against isolated Japanese 14th Area Army pockets (under General Tomoyuki Yamashita). On July 15, the U.S. Sixth Army (under General Walter Krueger) and Eighth Army (under General Robert Eichelberger), with Filipino guerrillas, conducted sweeps on Luzon and Mindanao, neutralizing small Japanese units in mountainous regions, with daily engagements involving 50–100 troops per side and minimal casualties (10–20). Operations, ongoing since July 1945, tapered off by August 1945.
Battle of Okinawa (Mopping-Up Operations): The Okinawa campaign ended on June 22, 1945, but mopping-up operations continued against remnants of the Japanese 32nd Army (under Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, killed June 22). On July 15, the U.S. 10th Army (under General Roy S. Geiger), with the 1st Marine Division and 96th Infantry Division, conducted sweeps around Mabuni, neutralizing isolated Japanese pockets and defending against sporadic kamikaze attacks by A6M Zero fighters (fewer than 10 daily). Total casualties by June included 110,000 Japanese and 12,500 U.S. deaths, with minimal losses in July. Operations, ongoing since June 1945, ended by late July 1945.
Outcomes: Australian advances in Balikpapan secured oil resources, weakening Japanese logistics. The Philippines’ liberation restored Allied control, with minimal resistance remaining. Okinawa’s capture provided a staging base for Japan’s planned invasion.

Asian Theatre

Borneo Campaign (Operation Oboe, Ongoing): Beyond Balikpapan, the Australian 9th Division (under Major General George Wootten) advanced in northern Borneo, securing Labuan Island and Brunei Bay against Japanese 37th Army. On July 15, the 2/28th Battalion and 2/12th Commando Squadron pushed inland, engaging Japanese guerrilla forces, with daily casualties of 10–20 per side. Supported by RAAF No. 76 Squadron and HMAS Shropshire, the campaign, ongoing since June 1945, continued until August 1945.
China (Battle of West Hunan, Ongoing): The Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) retreated in Guangxi and Hunan provinces, pursued by Chinese 3rd War Area forces (under General He Yingqin). On July 15, the Chinese 74th Army recaptured territory near Guilin, aided by U.S. 14th Air Force (P-51 Mustang fighters) targeting Japanese railways, with daily engagements involving 500–1,000 troops and casualties of 50–100 per side. The campaign, ongoing since April 1945, concluded in August 1945.
Burma Campaign (Ongoing): The Japanese Burma Area Army (under General Hyotaro Kimura) retreated toward the Sittang River after losing Rangoon (May 1945). On July 15, the British 14th Army (under General William Slim), including Indian 5th Division and British 2nd Division, engaged Japanese rearguards in the Sittang Bend, supported by RAF No. 221 Group (Hurricane fighters), with daily casualties of 50–100 per side. The campaign, ongoing since 1944, continued until August 1945.
Outcomes: Australian advances in Borneo secured strategic resources. Chinese counteroffensives reclaimed territory, weakening Japanese control. Japanese retreats in Burma solidified Allied dominance.

Key Personalities

General Douglas MacArthur: Oversaw the Philippines’ liberation.
Edward Osóbka-Morawski: Led the Polish Provisional Government.
General Ivan Bagramyan: Oversaw Soviet occupation in Eastern Europe.
Major General Edward Milford: Commanded Australian 7th Division at Balikpapan.
General William Slim: Led British 14th Army in Burma.
David Ben-Gurion: Advocated for Jewish emigration to Palestine.