Each Day in World War II – 9th July

July 9, 1940

On July 9, 1940, World War II saw escalating tensions in Europe and Asia following the fall of France in June 1940. The aftermath of the British attack on the Vichy French fleet at Mers-el-Kébir (Operation Catapult, July 3) strained Anglo-French relations, with Vichy France having severed diplomatic ties on July 5. German forces consolidated control over the occupied Channel Islands, while Italian air raids targeted Malta. Luftwaffe activity intensified in the prelude to the Battle of Britain, with skirmishes in the English Channel marking the Kanalkampf phase. The Soviet Union solidified its annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. In Asia, Japan expanded its military presence in French Indochina and consolidated gains in China. Jewish communities faced intensifying persecution, with ghettoization in Poland, anti-Jewish laws in Vichy France and occupied Western Europe, and disruptions in Soviet-annexed territories.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Aftermath of Mers-el-Kébir (Operation Catapult, Ongoing): Following the British attack on the Vichy French fleet at Mers-el-Kébir, Algeria, on July 3, which sank the battleship Bretagne, damaged Dunkerque and Provence, and killed 1,297 French sailors, Vichy France, under Marshal Philippe Pétain, severed diplomatic relations with Britain on July 5. On July 9, Vichy propaganda, led by Prime Minister Pierre Laval, continued to denounce the British action, reinforcing alignment with Nazi Germany. The attack, executed by British Force H (under Vice Admiral James Somerville) with ships like HMS Hood, HMS Valiant, and HMS Resolution, ensured Allied naval supremacy but strained relations with Vichy France, complicating diplomacy. This fallout, which began July 3, remained ongoing through 1940, continuing until Vichy’s dissolution in 1944.
Kanalkampf (Ongoing): The Kanalkampf, starting in early July 1940 and continuing through August 1940, involved Luftwaffe attacks on British convoys, ports, and airfields to weaken RAF defences and disrupt supply lines. On July 9, German Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2), equipped with Dornier Do 17 bombers, and Jagdgeschwader 51 (JG 51), with Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters, conducted raids on shipping convoys off Dover and Folkestone in the English Channel, targeting merchant vessels and coastal defenses. Luftwaffe units, under the command of Luftflotte 2 (led by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring), aimed to draw out RAF fighters and assess British radar and air defense capabilities. RAF Fighter Command (under Air Marshal Hugh Dowding), primarily No. 11 Group (under Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park), countered with Supermarine Spitfires and Hawker Hurricanes from squadrons such as No. 74 Squadron (RAF Hornchurch) and No. 609 Squadron (RAF Middle Wallop). Skirmishes resulted in losses on both sides, with the Luftwaffe losing approximately 5–10 aircraft (including Do 17s and Bf 109s) and the RAF losing 2–4 fighters, based on daily engagement records. The raids damaged several merchant ships but failed to disrupt British coastal defenses significantly, as RAF radar stations provided early warnings, enabling effective interception. The Kanalkampf was a prelude to the main Battle of Britain, which intensified with Adlerangriff (Eagle Attack) in August 1940, continuing until October 1940.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: In the General Government, under Hans Frank, ghettoization intensified. The Warsaw Ghetto, in the process of confining over 400,000 Jews, faced early restrictions by July 9, causing overcrowding, starvation (daily rations below 200 calories), and typhus outbreaks. In Kraków, approximately 60,000 Jews were being isolated in a forming ghetto, with forced relocations and property confiscation. Forced labor programs, enforced by SS authorities like Theodor Dannecker, conscripted Jews for infrastructure projects under brutal conditions, with violence and executions targeting Jewish leaders.
- Vichy France and Occupied Western Europe: In Vichy France, under Pétain, anti-Jewish laws were drafted in July (enacted as the Statute on Jews in October 1940), banning Jews from public sector jobs, education, and media, affecting 300,000 Jews (120,000 in France, 180,000 in French North Africa). In occupied France, German authorities, under Adolf Eichmann, enforced Jewish registration, curfews, and exclusion from public spaces in Paris. In the Netherlands and Belgium, registration of 140,000 and 65,000 Jews, respectively, began, with bans on businesses and employment escalating, setting the stage for deportations starting in 1942.
- Soviet-Annexed Territories and Romania: In Soviet-annexed Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, 250,000 Jews faced deportations to Siberia and collectivization, disrupting religious and cultural life, though some saw Soviet rule as a buffer against Nazis. In Romania, under Ion Antonescu’s pro-Axis regime, 400,000 Jews faced exclusion from public office and property confiscation, with pogroms increasing.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was restricted by Nazi policies and global barriers, like the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) aided limited emigration, but few escaped. In ghettos like Warsaw, Jewish councils (Judenräte), led by Adam Czerniaków, organized welfare and education. Underground newspapers and Zionist groups like Hashomer Hatzair formed clandestine networks, laying groundwork for future resistance.
Outcomes: The Mers-el-Kébir fallout deepened Vichy’s pro-Axis stance, complicating Allied strategy. German control of the Channel Islands bolstered propaganda. Soviet consolidation foreshadowed tensions with Germany. Luftwaffe raids marked the Battle of Britain’s onset. Jewish ghettoization and anti-Jewish laws isolated communities, causing thousands of deaths and facilitating future deportations, while early Jewish resistance provided limited hope.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Battle of Calabria (Battle of Punta Stilo): On July 9, 1940, the Battle of Calabria occurred off Calabria, Italy, between British and Italian fleets. British Force H (under Vice Admiral James Somerville), including HMS Warspite, HMS Malaya, and HMS Royal Sovereign, escorting a convoy to Malta, clashed with the Italian Regia Marina (under Admiral Inigo Campioni), including battleships Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour, and cruisers like Zara. The battle involved gunfire exchanges and air attacks by Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers and British Fairey Swordfish from HMS Eagle. Both sides sustained minor damage, with no ships sunk, and the engagement ended inconclusively as Italian forces withdrew. This one-day battle was the first major naval clash in the Mediterranean since Italy’s entry in June 1940.
Siege of Malta (Ongoing): Italian Regia Aeronautica continued bombing raids on Malta, a British stronghold. On or around July 9, Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers from the 36th Stormo targeted Grand Harbour and RAF airfields like Hal Far, countered by British Gloster Gladiator fighters of No. 33 Squadron. The siege, starting in June 1940, continued until 1943, aiming to disrupt British supply lines but facing resilient defenses.
Outcomes: The Battle of Calabria maintained British naval resilience, ensuring Malta’s supply lines. The ongoing Siege of Malta failed to neutralize the island, preserving its role as a key Mediterranean base.

Pacific Theatre

No significant military engagements occurred in the Pacific on July 9, 1940. The U.S. Pacific Fleet (under Admiral James O. Richardson) strengthened defenses at Pearl Harbor, conducting routine patrols and training with ships like USS Arizona and USS Enterprise. Japan focused on Asian gains and Indochina deployments, with no direct Pacific confrontations.
Outcomes: The Pacific remained a latent theatre, with Japan’s preparations foreshadowing its 1941 campaigns, including the Pearl Harbor attack in December.

Asian Theatre

In China, the Japanese 11th Army (under General Tomoyuki Yamashita) consolidated control in Hubei province after capturing Yichang (June 12, 1940), securing Yangtze River positions. Chinese 5th War Area forces (under General Li Zongren) conducted guerrilla raids, targeting Japanese supply lines and outposts. The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945 with persistent Chinese resistance.
Japan, led by Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka, implemented agreements with Vichy France (finalized late June–early July) for basing rights in French Indochina, deploying troops for planned invasions of Southeast Asia, including Malaya and the Philippines. This escalation, ongoing through 1940–1941, prompted U.S. and British sanctions, including oil embargoes.
Outcomes: Japanese gains in China faced ongoing resistance, straining resources. Indochina deployments advanced Japan’s expansionist plans, escalating tensions with Western powers.

Key Personalities

Vice Admiral James Somerville: Commanded British Force H in the Battle of Calabria and Mers-el-Kébir.
Marshal Philippe Pétain: Led Vichy France, implementing anti-Jewish laws.
Hans Frank: Governor-General of occupied Poland, oversaw ghettoization.
Adolf Eichmann: Coordinated anti-Jewish measures in occupied Europe.
General Tomoyuki Yamashita: Commanded Japanese forces in China.
Joseph Stalin: Directed Soviet consolidation in Bessarabia and Bukovina.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat, managed welfare under duress.

July 9, 1941

Overview of Key Events

On July 9, 1941, Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union launched on June 22, saw significant German advances on the Eastern Front, particularly in the Baltic states and Ukraine, with the Battle of Bialystok-Minsk concluding and Einsatzgruppen escalating Holocaust atrocities through mass executions. The U.S. occupation of Iceland, initiated on July 7, continued to secure Atlantic convoy routes. In the Mediterranean, Allied forces neared victory in the Syria-Lebanon Campaign against Vichy French forces. In Asia, Japan expanded its military presence in French Indochina, escalating tensions with Western powers. Jewish communities faced intensifying persecution, with pogroms in occupied Soviet territories and ghettoization in Poland.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Operation Barbarossa (Ongoing):
- Battle of Bialystok-Minsk (Concluded July 9): German Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock) completed the encirclement of Soviet forces in the Bialystok-Minsk pocket on July 9, capturing over 300,000 troops of the Soviet Western Front (under General Dmitry Pavlov, executed for failures). The 3rd Panzer Group (under General Hermann Hoth) and 2nd Panzer Group (under General Heinz Guderian), including the 17th Panzer Division and 18th Panzer Division, sealed the pocket, supported by Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 2 (Dornier Do 17 bombers) and Jagdgeschwader 51 (Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters). Soviet attempts to break out, led by the 13th Army, failed against German Panzer IV tanks and infantry. This battle, which began June 22, concluded on July 9, marking a significant German victory. The German capture of Vitebsk, considered by them to be the ‘gateway to Moscow’, marks the start of the Battle of Smolensk.
- Army Group North (Ongoing): German Army Group North (under Field Marshal Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb) advanced toward Pskov after capturing Riga (July 1). On July 9, the 18th Army and 4th Panzer Group (under General Erich Hoepner), including the 1st Panzer Division, engaged Soviet Northwestern Front (under General Fyodor Kuznetsov) and its 8th Army, pushing toward Leningrad with Luftwaffe support from Kampfgeschwader 1 (Heinkel He 111 bombers). This advance, part of Barbarossa, continued through 1941, culminating in the Siege of Leningrad (September 1941–January 1944).
- Army Group South (Ongoing): German Army Group South (under Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt) advanced toward Kiev, with the 6th Army and 1st Panzer Group (under General Ewald von Kleist) engaging Soviet Southwestern Front (under General Mikhail Kirponos) and its 5th Army near Lviv. This campaign, ongoing since June 22, continued through 1941, leading to the Battle of Kiev in September.
U.S. Occupation of Iceland (Ongoing): Initiated on July 7, the U.S. occupation of Iceland continued on July 9, with the 1st Marine Brigade (under Colonel Leo D. Hermle) establishing control in Reykjavik to replace British troops and secure Atlantic convoy routes against German U-boats. U.S. Navy Task Force 19 (including USS New York and USS Arkansas), authorized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, supported the operation. British forces, including the 49th (West Riding) Division, continued withdrawing, with the transition completing by late 1941. This occupation, which began July 7, continued through the war, strengthening Allied logistics.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Soviet Territories: Einsatzgruppen, under Reinhard Heydrich’s command, intensified mass executions in occupied Soviet territories. In Latvia, Einsatzgruppe A (under SS-Obersturmbannführer Franz Walter Stahlecker) conducted pogroms, killing thousands of Jews in early July, particularly in Riga and Daugavpils. In Ukraine, Einsatzgruppe C’s actions in Lviv included mass shootings, with hundreds of Jews killed in pits or burned in synagogues, often with Ukrainian collaborator support. These killings, ongoing since June 1941, escalated through 1941–1942, targeting Jewish communities systematically.
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: In the General Government, under Hans Frank, the Warsaw Ghetto, with over 400,000 Jews, faced worsening conditions—starvation (daily rations below 200 calories), typhus, and forced labor. The Kraków Ghetto, isolating around 60,000 Jews, saw increased restrictions and property confiscation. Forced labor programs, enforced by SS authorities, conscripted Jews for infrastructure projects, with violence and executions targeting leaders. Ghettoization, ongoing since 1939, continued through 1941, preparing for deportations starting in 1942.
- Western Europe: In occupied France, German authorities, under Theodor Dannecker and Adolf Eichmann, enforced Jewish registration and economic restrictions, with curfews and exclusion from public spaces in Paris affecting 150,000 Jews. In Vichy France, under Marshal Philippe Pétain, anti-Jewish laws were drafted (enacted October 1940), targeting 300,000 Jews (120,000 in France, 180,000 in North Africa). In the Netherlands and Belgium, registration of 140,000 and 65,000 Jews, respectively, began, with bans on businesses and employment escalating, setting the stage for deportations in 1942. These measures, ongoing since June 1940, continued through 1941.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration faced severe restrictions due to Nazi policies and global barriers, like the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) aided limited emigration, but few escaped. In ghettos like Warsaw, Jewish councils (Judenräte), led by Adam Czerniaków, organized welfare and education. Underground networks, including Zionist groups like Hashomer Hatzair, began forming, laying groundwork for resistance like the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (1943).
Outcomes: The Bialystok-Minsk encirclement crippled the Soviet Western Front, advancing German objectives toward Smolensk. Army Group North and South gains threatened Leningrad and Kiev, though Soviet resistance persisted. The U.S. occupation of Iceland strengthened Atlantic convoy security. Jewish persecution escalated with pogroms and ghettoization, killing thousands and isolating communities, while early resistance efforts provided limited hope.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Syria-Lebanon Campaign (Operation Exporter, Ongoing): Allied forces, including Australian 7th Division (under Major General John Lavarack), British 7th Division, Free French 1st Division (under General Paul Legentilhomme), and 5th Indian Brigade, advanced after capturing Palmyra (July 1). On July 9, Australian 25th Brigade and Free French units pushed toward Beirut and Homs, engaging Vichy French 6th Foreign Legion and 22nd Algerian Tirailleurs. Supported by No. 3 Squadron RAAF (Hawker Hurricanes) and Royal Navy ships like HMS Ajax, the Allies weakened Vichy defenses. The campaign, which began June 8, concluded with an armistice on July 14, 1941.
Outcomes: Allied advances eroded Vichy control, securing the Levant and protecting Middle Eastern oil routes by the campaign’s end.

Pacific Theatre

No significant military engagements occurred in the Pacific on July 9, 1941. The U.S. Pacific Fleet (under Admiral Husband E. Kimmel) strengthened defenses at Pearl Harbor, conducting routine patrols and training with ships like USS Enterprise. Japan focused on consolidating Asian gains and deploying troops to French Indochina, with no direct Pacific confrontations.
Outcomes: The Pacific remained a latent theatre, with Japan’s preparations foreshadowing its December 1941 attacks, including Pearl Harbor.

Asian Theatre

In China, the Japanese 13th Army (under General Shizuichi Tanaka) engaged Chinese 8th Route Army (under General Zhu De) in Shanxi province, following the Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940). Chinese communist forces used guerrilla tactics to disrupt Japanese garrisons, railways, and supply lines, targeting outposts. The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945 with persistent Chinese resistance.
Japan’s Southern Army (under General Hisaichi Terauchi) continued deploying troops to southern French Indochina, following agreements with Vichy France (finalized June 29–30), positioning forces for planned invasions of Southeast Asia, including Malaya and the Philippines. This escalation, ongoing through 1941, prompted U.S. and British economic sanctions, including oil embargoes.
Outcomes: Japanese operations in China faced persistent resistance, limiting consolidation. Indochina deployments strengthened Japan’s strategic position but accelerated tensions with Western powers.

Key Personalities

Field Marshal Fedor von Bock: Led Army Group Center in the Bialystok-Minsk encirclement.
Reinhard Heydrich: Directed Einsatzgruppen mass executions in occupied Soviet territories.
Major General John Lavarack: Commanded Australian forces in Syria.
General Zhu De: Led Chinese communist resistance against Japan.
General Hisaichi Terauchi: Oversaw Japanese deployments in Indochina.
Franklin D. Roosevelt: Authorized U.S. occupation of Iceland.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat, managed welfare under duress.

July 9, 1942

Valentine tank being unloaded at Suez, 1942

Overview of Key Events

On July 9, 1942, the First Battle of El Alamein in North Africa continued, with British forces defending against General Erwin Rommel’s Axis advance. On the Eastern Front, German forces, having captured Voronezh on July 7 as part of Operation Case Blue, pushed toward the Don River, while mopping-up operations concluded in Sevastopol, Crimea. In the Atlantic, the Convoy PQ 17 disaster saw ongoing losses to German U-boats and aircraft, with attacks continuing from July 4. Holocaust deportations from Western Europe and Poland to death camps escalated, marking a peak in Operation Reinhard. In the Pacific, U.S. forces prepared for the Guadalcanal Campaign, set for August. In Asia, Japan consolidated gains in China and the Aleutian Islands, facing Allied resistance.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Operation Case Blue (Ongoing): Following the capture of Voronezh on July 7, German Army Group South (under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock) continued advancing on July 9 as part of Operation Case Blue, launched June 28, 1942, to seize the Caucasus oil fields. Army Group B (under General Maximilian von Weichs), including the 4th Panzer Army (under General Hermann Hoth) and 2nd Army (under General Hans von Salmuth), fortified positions around Voronezh, engaging Soviet Southwestern Front (under Marshal Semyon Timoshenko) and its 40th Army. The 3rd Panzer Division and 16th Panzer Division, supported by Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 55 (Heinkel He 111 bombers) and Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (Ju 87 Stukas), countered Soviet T-34 tanks and IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft in defensive skirmishes. The operation, ongoing through 1942, culminated in the Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942–February 1943).
Consolidation of Sevastopol (Ongoing): After capturing Sevastopol on July 1–3, the German 11th Army (under General Erich von Manstein) completed mopping-up operations in Crimea by July 9, following the campaign’s start in June 1941. The German 54th Corps and Romanian 3rd Mountain Division, supported by Luftwaffe VIII Air Corps (Ju 87 Stukas), secured remaining Soviet positions, capturing over 90,000 prisoners from the Soviet Coastal Army (under General Ivan Petrov). The operation, concluding around July 9, solidified German control in Crimea, though it diverted resources from Case Blue.
Convoy PQ 17 Disaster (Ongoing): Arctic Convoy PQ 17, en route to the Soviet Union, faced ongoing attacks after Allied escorts withdrew on July 4 due to a mistaken threat from the German battleship Tirpitz. On July 9, German U-boats (including U-456 and U-703) and Luftwaffe Kampfgeschwader 30 (Ju 88 bombers) continued sinking merchant ships, with 17 of 35 ships lost by this date. British destroyers like HMS Keppel and U.S. ships like USS Wainwright struggled to protect the scattered convoy. The convoy’s ordeal, starting June 27, ended by mid-July 1942, severely disrupting Allied aid to the Soviets.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: In the General Government, under Hans Frank, Operation Reinhard, the systematic extermination of Polish Jews, escalated. On or around July 9, Jews from ghettos like Zamość and Lublin were deported to Belzec death camp, under SS-Gruppenführer Odilo Globocnik, with thousands gassed upon arrival. The Warsaw Ghetto, confining over 400,000 Jews, faced worsening conditions—starvation (daily rations below 200 calories), typhus, and forced labor—with SS authorities, including Jürgen Stroop, preparing for mass deportations to Treblinka, set to begin July 22, 1942. Ghettoization, ongoing since 1939, continued through 1943.
- Western Europe: Deportations from the Netherlands and France to Auschwitz-Birkenau, organized by Adolf Eichmann, intensified. On or around July 9, a transport from Westerbork transit camp in the Netherlands sent approximately 1,000 Jews to Auschwitz, where most were gassed. In occupied France, under Theodor Dannecker, Jewish registration and arrests escalated, targeting 150,000 Jews for future deportations, which began in earnest with the Vel’ d’Hiv Roundup (July 16–17, 1942). In Vichy France, anti-Jewish laws, enacted since October 1940, marginalized 300,000 Jews (120,000 in France, 180,000 in North Africa). These measures, ongoing since 1940, continued through 1942–1944.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was nearly impossible due to Nazi restrictions and global barriers, like the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided limited aid, but few escaped. In the Warsaw Ghetto, the Judenrat, led by Adam Czerniaków, organized welfare and education, while underground groups like ŻOB (Jewish Fighting Organization) began forming, spurred by reports of mass killings. Resistance, ongoing since 1940, grew into uprisings like Warsaw’s in 1943.
Outcomes: German advances in Case Blue threatened Soviet industrial regions, though resistance slowed progress. Sevastopol’s fall strengthened German control in Crimea at high cost. PQ 17 losses crippled Soviet aid, exposing convoy vulnerabilities. Holocaust deportations killed thousands daily, advancing the Final Solution, while Jewish resistance networks began to organize.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

First Battle of El Alamein (Ongoing): The battle, launched July 1, 1942, continued on July 9, with General Erwin Rommel’s Panzer Army Africa, including the 15th Panzer Division, 21st Panzer Division, and Italian XX Corps (Ariete Division), pressing British defenses at El Alamein, Egypt. The British Eighth Army (under General Claude Auchinleck) held the line with the 2nd South African Division, 18th Indian Infantry Brigade, and 1st Armoured Division, supported by RAF No. 211 Group (Hurricane fighters). British forces repelled Axis assaults at Ruweisat Ridge, using Matilda II tanks and 6-pounder anti-tank guns against German Panzer IVs and 88mm Flak guns. The battle, ongoing until July 27, 1942, marked a critical defensive stand.
Outcomes: The Eighth Army’s defense halted Rommel’s advance, protecting Egypt and the Suez Canal, setting the stage for the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942.

Pacific Theatre

Guadalcanal Campaign Preparations (Ongoing): U.S. forces under Admiral Chester Nimitz continued preparing for the Guadalcanal Campaign, set for August 7, 1942. On July 9, Task Force 16 (USS Enterprise, USS Hornet, under Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance) refitted in Pearl Harbor, while the 1st Marine Division (under Major General Alexander Vandegrift) trained in New Zealand. PBY Catalina aircraft of VP-44 Squadron conducted reconnaissance over Guadalcanal and Tulagi, mapping Japanese defenses of the 17th Army (under General Harukichi Hyakutake). Preparations, ongoing since June 1942, continued until the campaign’s start.
Outcomes: U.S. preparations positioned forces for the first major Allied offensive in the Pacific, shifting momentum post-Midway (June 1942).

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) conducted mopping-up operations in Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces after the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign (April–July 1942), targeting Chinese 3rd War Area forces (under General Gu Zhutong). Chinese guerrilla resistance from the 8th Route Army (under General Zhu De) disrupted Japanese control, securing airfields used in the Doolittle Raid (April 1942). The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945.
Aleutian Islands (Ongoing): Japanese Imperial Navy forces maintained positions in the Aleutian Islands (Attu and Kiska), occupied since June 1942, despite logistical strains post-Midway. The occupation, ongoing until August 1943, faced limited U.S. counterattacks.
Outcomes: Japanese efforts in China met persistent resistance, limiting consolidation. Aleutian occupations diverted resources with minimal strategic impact.

Key Personalities

General Erich von Manstein: Led German 11th Army in Sevastopol’s consolidation.
General Erwin Rommel: Commanded Axis forces at El Alamein.
General Claude Auchinleck: Led British Eighth Army in El Alamein’s defense.
Adolf Eichmann: Oversaw Holocaust deportations to Auschwitz.
General Yasuji Okamura: Directed Japanese operations in China.
Adam Czerniaków: Head of the Warsaw Ghetto Judenrat, managed welfare under duress.

July 9, 1943

172nd Infantry (Vermont National Guard) cross a stream at Munda Point, July, 1943

Overview of Key Events

On July 9, 1943, the Battle of Kursk, one of the largest battles in history, continued on the Eastern Front, with Soviet forces countering German advances in Operation Citadel, launched on July 5. In the Pacific, the New Georgia Campaign saw U.S. forces battling Japanese defences in the Solomon Islands. In the Mediterranean, Allied forces finalized preparations for the invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky), set to begin on July 10. Holocaust liquidations and deportations intensified, particularly in Poland and the Netherlands, as part of Operation Reinhard. In Asia, Japanese forces consolidated positions in China and New Guinea, facing Allied resistance.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Battle of Kursk (Operation Citadel, Ongoing): Launched on July 5, 1943, Operation Citadel saw German Army Group South (under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein) and Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Günther von Kluge) attacking the Soviet salient around Kursk. On July 9, the 4th Panzer Army (under General Hermann Hoth), 9th Army (under General Walter Model), and Army Detachment Kempf pressed forward with the 3rd Panzer Division, 11th Panzer Division, and SS Panzer Corps (1st, 2nd, and 3rd SS Panzer Divisions), using Panzer IV, Tiger I, and Panther tanks. Luftwaffe units like Kampfgeschwader 55 (Heinkel He 111 bombers) and Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 (Ju 87 Stukas) supported the assault. Soviet Central Front (under General Konstantin Rokossovsky) and Voronezh Front (under General Nikolai Vatutin), with the 13th Army, 5th Guards Army, and 5th Guards Tank Army, countered with T-34 tanks, anti-tank guns, and IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft. Fighting at Prokhorovka and Ponyri inflicted heavy losses, with Soviet defenses holding key positions. The battle, ongoing until July 23, 1943, marked a turning point on the Eastern Front.
Allied Air Raids (Ongoing): RAF Bomber Command (under Air Marshal Arthur Harris) and U.S. Eighth Air Force (under Major General Ira Eaker) continued bombing German industrial targets. On or around July 9, RAF No. 5 Group (Avro Lancasters) targeted Cologne, while the 100th Bomb Group (B-17 Flying Fortresses) struck U-boat facilities in Bremen, aiming to disrupt German production. These raids, ongoing since 1942, continued through 1945, weakening German infrastructure at high aircraft losses.
Allied Warning to Neutrals: On July 9, 1943, the Allies issued a public warning to neutral nations, such as Switzerland, Sweden, and Spain, against providing asylum to Axis war criminals, signaling preparations for post-war justice, including the Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946). This diplomatic move, a one-day event, aimed to deter Axis leaders from seeking refuge.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: The liquidation of the Lviv Ghetto, overseen by SS and Police Leader Friedrich Katzmann, was nearly complete by July 9, following its initiation in June 1943. Most remaining Jews were deported to Belzec death camp or executed at Janowska labor camp, with minimal resistance due to overwhelming SS and Ukrainian auxiliary forces. The Warsaw Ghetto, reduced after the April–May 1943 uprising, saw surviving Jews in hiding or forced labor camps facing ongoing persecution under SS authorities like Jürgen Stroop. Deportations from other Polish ghettos, such as Bialystok, to Treblinka and Auschwitz-Birkenau continued as part of Operation Reinhard, ongoing since 1942, with thousands gassed weekly.
- Western Europe: Deportations from the Netherlands via Westerbork transit camp to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Sobibor intensified, organized by Adolf Eichmann. On or around July 9, a transport of approximately 1,000 Jews from Westerbork was sent to Auschwitz, where most were gassed upon arrival. In occupied France, anti-Jewish measures, including arrests and property confiscation, targeted 150,000 Jews, with deportations via Drancy camp escalating. These measures, ongoing since 1940, continued through 1944.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration remained nearly impossible due to Nazi restrictions and global barriers, like the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided limited aid, but few escaped. In Poland, surviving Jewish resistance groups, such as the ŻOB (Jewish Fighting Organization), coordinated underground activities post-Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, focusing on survival and sabotage. Resistance, ongoing since 1942, persisted in hiding and small-scale actions through 1945.
Outcomes: The Battle of Kursk saw Soviet forces absorbing German assaults, inflicting significant losses and shifting Eastern Front momentum. Allied air raids weakened German infrastructure. The warning to neutrals laid groundwork for post-war accountability. Holocaust liquidations and deportations decimated Jewish populations, with resistance offering limited opposition.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Sicily Invasion Preparations (Operation Husky, Ongoing): Allied forces, including the British Eighth Army (under General Bernard Montgomery) and U.S. Seventh Army (under General George S. Patton), finalized plans for the invasion of Sicily, set for July 10, 1943. The 1st Canadian Infantry Division, British 51st (Highland) Division, and U.S. 82nd Airborne Division trained in North Africa, supported by RAF No. 205 Group (Wellington bombers) and U.S. 12th Air Force (B-25 Mitchells) conducting reconnaissance and bombing runs on Axis defenses in Sicily, targeting German 15th Panzergrenadier Division and Italian 6th Army. Preparations, ongoing since June 1943, culminated in the invasion, which ran from July 10 to August 17, 1943.
Outcomes: Allied preparations ensured a coordinated assault on Sicily, pressuring Axis forces and diverting German resources from the Eastern Front.

Pacific Theatre

New Georgia Campaign (Ongoing): Launched on June 30, 1943, the U.S.-led New Georgia Campaign in the Solomon Islands continued under Admiral William F. Halsey. On July 9, the 43rd Infantry Division (under Major General John H. Hester) and 4th Marine Raider Battalion advanced toward Munda Point airfield, engaging Japanese 17th Army (under General Harukichi Hyakutake). P-38 Lightning fighters of the 339th Fighter Squadron provided air cover, while Task Force 31 (under Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner), including destroyers like USS Ralph Talbot, supported operations. Japanese coastal defenses and A6M Zero fighters from the 251st Air Group resisted fiercely. The campaign, ongoing until August 25, 1943, aimed to capture key airfields.
Outcomes: The New Georgia Campaign challenged Japanese control in the Solomons, though heavy resistance slowed Allied progress, setting the stage for prolonged fighting.

Asian Theatre

China (Ongoing): The Japanese 11th Army (under General Yukio Kasahara) consolidated positions in Hubei province after the Battle of Western Hubei (May–June 1943), engaging Chinese 6th War Area forces (under General Sun Lianzhong). Chinese troops employed guerrilla tactics to disrupt Japanese supply lines, targeting railways and outposts. The Second Sino-Japanese War, ongoing since 1937, continued through 1945.
New Guinea (Ongoing): Japanese 18th Army (under General Hatazo Adachi) reinforced defenses around Lae and Salamaua, facing pressure from Australian 3rd Division and U.S. 41st Infantry Division, supported by RAAF No. 100 Squadron (Beaufort bombers). These operations, ongoing since 1942, continued through 1944.
Outcomes: Japanese control in Hubei faced persistent Chinese resistance, limiting consolidation. New Guinea defenses prepared for Allied offensives, straining Japanese resources.

Key Personalities

Field Marshal Erich von Manstein: Led German Army Group South in Kursk.
General Konstantin Rokossovsky: Commanded Soviet Central Front in Kursk.
Admiral William F. Halsey: Directed U.S. forces in the New Georgia Campaign.
Friedrich Katzmann: Oversaw Lviv Ghetto liquidation.
Adolf Eichmann: Organized deportations to Auschwitz and Sobibor.
General Yukio Kasahara: Led Japanese operations in Hubei.

July 9, 1944

144 Royal Armoured Corps advancing for Operation Charnwood, July 1944

Overview of Key Events

On July 9, 1944, Soviet forces advanced in Operation Bagration, pushing toward Poland after capturing Minsk, significantly weakening German Army Group Center. In Normandy, Allied forces continued Operation Charnwood, capturing Caen after intense fighting against German defences. In the Pacific, the Battle of Saipan concluded with U.S. forces securing the island after a massive Japanese banzai attack on July 7. Holocaust deportations from Hungary to Auschwitz-Birkenau peaked, with thousands killed daily. In Asia, Japan’s Operation Ichi-Go advanced in China, while Japanese forces completed their withdrawal from Imphal, India, marking an Allied victory in the Burma Campaign.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Operation Bagration (Ongoing): Launched on June 22, 1944, Operation Bagration saw Soviet forces of the 1st Belorussian Front (under General Konstantin Rokossovsky) and 3rd Belorussian Front (under General Ivan Chernyakhovsky) advancing toward Poland after capturing Minsk (July 3–4). On July 9, the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army and 65th Army, equipped with T-34 tanks and supported by IL-2 Sturmovik aircraft, pressed toward Baranovichi and Grodno, engaging remnants of German Army Group Center (under Field Marshal Walter Model). The German 4th Army and 9th Army, reinforced by the 5th Panzer Division, attempted to stabilize defenses but were overwhelmed. The operation, ongoing until August 1944, aimed to liberate Belarus and push into Poland.
Normandy Campaign (Operation Overlord, Ongoing): Launched on June 6, 1944, Operation Overlord continued with Operation Charnwood (July 8–9, 1944), aimed at capturing Caen. On July 9, the British Second Army (under General Bernard Montgomery), including British VIII Corps (under Lieutenant General Richard O’Connor) with the 51st (Highland) Division and Canadian 3rd Infantry Division, completed the capture of northern Caen, overcoming German Panzer Group West (under General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg) and the 12th SS Panzer Division. Supported by RAF 2nd Tactical Air Force (Hawker Typhoons) and naval bombardment from HMS Rodney, Allied forces used Sherman tanks to break through German defenses, including the 21st Panzer Division and 16th Luftwaffe Field Division. Meanwhile, U.S. First Army (under General Omar Bradley), including the 2nd Infantry Division, advanced toward St. Lô against the German 352nd Infantry Division, with U.S. Ninth Air Force (P-47 Thunderbolts) providing air support. Operation Overlord continued until August 1944.
V-1 Attacks (Ongoing): Germany continued V-1 flying bomb attacks on London from Pas-de-Calais, operated by Flak-Regiment 155 (W), causing civilian casualties. On July 9, British defenses, including anti-aircraft guns and RAF Tempest fighters, intercepted several bombs, but attacks persisted, ongoing since June 1944 through early 1945.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Nazi-Occupied Poland: Deportations from the Łódź Ghetto to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Chelmno intensified under SS authorities like Hans Biebow. On or around July 9, hundreds of Jews, including remaining workers and families, were deported, with most gassed upon arrival. The Warsaw Ghetto, reduced after the 1943 uprising, saw surviving Jews in hiding or forced labor camps facing ongoing persecution. These deportations, part of Operation Reinhard’s aftermath, continued through 1944.
- Hungary: Deportations from Hungary to Auschwitz-Birkenau, organized by Adolf Eichmann, were at their peak, with daily trains from Budapest and provincial towns carrying thousands. On or around July 9, approximately 2,000–3,000 Jews were gassed upon arrival, with others selected for forced labor in subcamps like Buna-Monowitz. The Hungarian deportations, ongoing since May 1944, slowed by late July due to international pressure.
- Western Europe: Deportations from the Netherlands via Westerbork and France via Drancy to Auschwitz continued, with hundreds gassed weekly. Anti-Jewish measures, including property confiscation and arrests, targeted 140,000 Jews in the Netherlands and 150,000 in France, ongoing since 1940 through 1944.
- Jewish Responses: Emigration was nearly impossible due to Nazi restrictions and global barriers, like the British 1939 White Paper limiting Palestine entry. The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided limited aid. Jewish resistance groups, such as the ŻOB in Poland, focused on survival and sabotage, while Zionist groups like Hashomer Hatzair organized clandestine emigration. Resistance, ongoing since 1942, persisted in limited forms through 1945.
Outcomes: Operation Bagration crippled Army Group Center, shifting Eastern Front momentum toward Poland. Operation Charnwood secured Caen, strengthening Allied positions in Normandy. V-1 attacks disrupted British civilians but had limited strategic impact. Holocaust deportations decimated Hungary’s Jewish population, with resistance offering minimal opposition.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Italian Campaign (Ongoing): Allied forces, including the U.S. Fifth Army (under General Mark Clark) and British Eighth Army (under General Oliver Leese), advanced north of Rome, engaging German 10th Army (under General Heinrich von Vietinghoff). On July 9, the U.S. 34th Infantry Division and British 78th Division clashed with German 14th Panzer Corps near Florence, supported by U.S. 12th Air Force (B-25 Mitchell bombers). The campaign, ongoing since June 1944, continued until May 1945.
Operation Dragoon Preparations (Ongoing): Planning for the invasion of southern France (August 15, 1944) progressed, with U.S. Seventh Army (under General Alexander Patch) and Free French Army B (under General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny) organizing in North Africa for amphibious landings, coordinating with French Resistance groups. Preparations, ongoing since early 1944, culminated in August.
Outcomes: Allied advances in Italy weakened German defenses, while Dragoon preparations set the stage for a second European front, diverting Axis resources.

Pacific Theatre

Battle of Saipan (Operation Forager, Concluded July 9): Launched on June 15, 1944, the Battle of Saipan ended on July 9 with U.S. forces declaring the island secure. The 2nd Marine Division, 4th Marine Division, and 27th Infantry Division (under Lieutenant General Holland Smith) mopped up remaining Japanese resistance after a massive banzai attack on July 7, which killed over 4,300 Japanese and nearly 1,000 U.S. troops. Supported by Task Force 58 (under Admiral Marc Mitscher), including USS Tennessee for naval bombardment, U.S. forces overcame the Japanese 31st Army (under Lieutenant General Yoshitsugu Saito, who committed suicide). The battle’s conclusion marked a major Allied victory.
Outcomes: Saipan’s capture secured the Mariana Islands, providing airfields for B-29 bombers and weakening Japan’s defensive perimeter, contributing to the fall of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo’s government in July 1944.

Asian Theatre

Operation Ichi-Go (Ongoing): In China, the Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) advanced in Henan and Hunan provinces, targeting Chinese 4th War Area forces (under General Zhang Fakui). The 12th Army, having captured Luoyang (May 1944), pressed toward Hengyang after taking Changsha (June 1944). Chinese resistance, including guerrilla tactics by the 74th Army, slowed Japanese progress. The operation, ongoing since April 1944, continued until December 1944.
India-Burma Theatre (Ongoing): Following the Japanese 15th Army’s (under General Renya Mutaguchi) withdrawal from Imphal, India, completed on July 8, British 14th Army (under General William Slim), including Indian 5th Division and British 2nd Division, pursued Japanese forces near the Chindwin River on July 9, supported by RAF No. 221 Group (Hurricane fighters). The Burma Campaign, ongoing since 1942, continued until 1945.
Outcomes: Japanese gains in China threatened Allied airfields but faced resistance, limiting consolidation. The Imphal victory strengthened Allied control in the India-Burma theatre.

Key Personalities

General Konstantin Rokossovsky: Commanded Soviet 1st Belorussian Front in Bagration.
General Bernard Montgomery: Led British Second Army in Operation Charnwood.
Lieutenant General Holland Smith: Directed U.S. forces on Saipan.
Adolf Eichmann: Oversaw Hungarian deportations.
General William Slim: Led British 14th Army in the Imphal victory.
General Yasuji Okamura: Led Operation Ichi-Go in China.

July 9, 1945

Japanese Chi-Ha tanks in the Philippines, 1945

Overview of Key Events

On July 9, 1945, the European war had ended with Germany’s surrender on May 8, 1945, and Allied efforts focused on post-war occupation and Holocaust survivor recovery in Displaced Persons (DP) camps. In the Pacific, the Battle of Balikpapan in Borneo, part of Operation Oboe, continued with Australian forces advancing against Japanese defences. Mopping-up operations persisted in Okinawa following the campaign’s end on June 22, while General Douglas MacArthur’s announcement of the Philippines’ liberation on July 5 marked a strategic milestone. In Asia, Japanese forces retreated in China and Burma under Allied pressure.

European and Atlantic Theatre

Post-War Occupation (Ongoing): Following Germany’s surrender on May 8, 1945, Allied forces managed occupation zones in Germany and Austria, with Soviet forces, including the 1st Baltic Front (under General Ivan Bagramyan), controlling eastern Germany and Poland under Yalta Conference agreements (February 1945). The Polish Provisional Government of National Unity, led by Edward Osóbka-Morawski, operational since June 28, 1945, consolidated Soviet-backed governance. Allied efforts, ongoing since May 1945 through the post-war period, focused on denazification, infrastructure rebuilding, and managing over 7 million Displaced Persons (DPs), including 50,000–100,000 Jewish survivors.
Jewish Affairs (Ongoing):
- Displaced Persons Camps: Jewish survivors were primarily housed in DP camps such as Feldafing and Landsberg (U.S. zone, Germany), Bergen-Belsen (British zone, Germany), and Santa Cesarea (Italy). On or around July 9, survivors faced ongoing challenges, with Bergen-Belsen, liberated April 15, 1945, seeing continued deaths from typhus, dysentery, and malnutrition (daily caloric intake often below 1,500 calories). British medical units, including the 32nd Casualty Clearing Station, provided care, while Feldafing’s Jewish survivors organized self-governance, education, and Yiddish cultural activities, though psychological trauma and resource shortages persisted. These conditions, ongoing since liberation in spring 1945, continued through the late 1940s.
- Relief Efforts: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) and United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) supplied food, medical care, and family tracing services. On July 9, JDC teams distributed kosher food and religious materials in camps like Feldafing, but logistical constraints limited aid to about 30% of needed supplies, a challenge ongoing through 1945–1946.
- Antisemitism and Repatriation: In Poland, antisemitic violence, including attacks in Kraków and Lublin, deterred repatriation, with dozens of Jews killed in summer 1945 pogroms. Approximately 200,000 Polish Jewish survivors faced hostility, prompting emigration to Palestine or Western countries. Zionist groups, led by David Ben-Gurion, organized clandestine Aliyah Bet to bypass British 1939 White Paper restrictions, ongoing through the 1940s.
- War Crimes Trials Preparation: Preparations for the Nuremberg Trials (set for November 1945) advanced, with the United Nations War Crimes Commission collecting survivor testimonies and evidence from camps like Dachau (liberated April 29, 1945) and Buchenwald (liberated April 8, 1945), including gas chamber documentation and mass grave findings. These efforts, ongoing since mid-1945, continued into 1946.
Outcomes: Soviet occupation shaped Eastern Europe’s post-war landscape, setting the stage for Cold War tensions. Jewish survivors struggled in under-resourced DP camps, with antisemitism blocking repatriation and fueling Zionist emigration. Trial preparations laid groundwork for justice, though limited in scope initially.

Mediterranean and African Theatre

Post-War Stabilization (Ongoing): With the European and North African campaigns concluded by May 1945, Allied forces, including the British Eighth Army and U.S. Fifth Army, focused on occupation duties in Italy and reconstruction in North Africa, emphasizing infrastructure repair, repatriation, and administration of former Axis territories. These efforts, ongoing since May 1945, continued through the post-war period.
Outcomes: The Mediterranean transitioned to stabilization, with Allied efforts centered on demobilization and humanitarian aid.

Pacific Theatre

Battle of Balikpapan (Ongoing): Launched on July 1, 1945, the Australian-led Battle of Balikpapan in Borneo, part of Operation Oboe, continued on July 9. The Australian 7th Division (under Major General Edward Milford), including the 2/9th Battalion, 2/10th Battalion, and 2/1st Pioneer Battalion, advanced inland, capturing oil facilities and engaging Japanese 37th Army (under Lieutenant General Masao Baba). Supported by RAAF No. 76 Squadron (P-40 Kittyhawk fighters), U.S. Navy Task Force 74 (including USS Phoenix), and Dutch KNIL units, Australian forces overcame Japanese fortified positions and Type 95 Ha-Go tanks, securing strategic ridges. The battle, ongoing until July 21, 1945, aimed to secure Borneo’s oil fields.
Philippines Liberation (Ongoing): Following General Douglas MacArthur’s July 5 announcement of the Philippines’ liberation, U.S. Sixth Army (under General Walter Krueger) and Eighth Army (under General Robert Eichelberger), supported by Filipino guerrillas, conducted mopping-up operations against isolated Japanese pockets of the 14th Area Army (under General Tomoyuki Yamashita). On July 9, operations focused on Luzon and Mindanao, neutralizing remaining resistance, ongoing through August 1945.
Battle of Okinawa (Ongoing): The campaign ended on June 22, 1945, but mopping-up operations continued against remnants of the Japanese 32nd Army (under Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, killed June 22). On July 9, U.S. 10th Army (under General Roy S. Geiger) conducted sweeps with the 1st Marine Division and 96th Infantry Division around Mabuni, neutralizing small Japanese pockets and defending against isolated kamikaze attacks by A6M Zero fighters. These operations, ongoing since June, tapered off by late July 1945.
Outcomes: The Philippines’ liberation restored Allied control, weakening Japanese logistics. Australian advances in Balikpapan secured key resources. Okinawa’s capture provided a staging base for the planned invasion of Japan, at a cost of over 12,000 U.S. and 110,000 Japanese lives.

Asian Theatre

Borneo Campaign (Operation Oboe, Ongoing): Beyond Balikpapan, the Australian 9th Division (under Major General George Wootten) advanced in northern Borneo, securing Labuan Island and Brunei Bay against Japanese 37th Army. On July 9, the 2/28th Battalion and 2/12th Commando Squadron pushed inland, engaging Japanese guerrilla forces, supported by RAAF No. 76 Squadron and HMAS Shropshire. The campaign, ongoing since June 1945, continued until August 1945.
China (Battle of West Hunan, Ongoing): The Japanese China Expeditionary Army (under General Yasuji Okamura) continued retreating in Guangxi and Hunan provinces, pursued by Chinese 3rd War Area forces (under General He Yingqin). The Chinese 74th Army recaptured territory, aided by U.S. 14th Air Force (P-51 Mustang fighters), disrupting Japanese supply lines. The campaign, ongoing since April 1945, concluded in August 1945.
Burma Campaign (Ongoing): The Japanese Burma Area Army (under General Hyotaro Kimura) retreated toward the Sittang River after losing Rangoon (May 1945). On July 9, British 14th Army (under General William Slim), including Indian 5th Division and British 2nd Division, engaged Japanese rearguards in the Sittang Bend, supported by RAF No. 221 Group (Hurricane fighters). The campaign, ongoing since 1944, continued until August 1945.
Outcomes: Australian advances in Borneo secured strategic resources. Chinese counteroffensives reclaimed territory, weakening Japanese control. Japanese retreats in Burma solidified Allied dominance.

Key Personalities

General Douglas MacArthur: Oversaw the Philippines’ liberation, announced July 5.
Edward Osóbka-Morawski: Led the Polish Provisional Government, influencing Jewish repatriation challenges.
General Ivan Bagramyan: Oversaw Soviet occupation in Eastern Europe.
Major General Edward Milford: Commanded Australian 7th Division at Balikpapan.
General William Slim: Led British 14th Army in Burma.
David Ben-Gurion: Advocated for Jewish emigration to Palestine.